Wednesday, January 29, 2020
Relationships between Satisfaction with Life Essay Example for Free
Relationships between Satisfaction with Life Essay Abstract            Satisfaction with life is a concept highly valued in today’s society. In an effort to understand mechanisms behind the life satisfaction, present study investigated the relationships between social network size, optimism and conscientiousness and the outcome variable, satisfaction with life. The four variables were measured through the use of a survey. Participants were students from California State University, Fullerton. A correlational analysis of the data showed a significant positive relationship between optimism, and conscientiousness and satisfaction with life. It was also found that individuals with large social network size were more satisfied than those with small social network size. These findings imply that improving levels of optimism and conscientiousness and increasing one’s social network can insure greater life satisfaction. Relationships between Satisfaction with Life, Social Network Size, Optimism, and Conscientiousness            Satisfaction with life is most often one of the greatest concerns of an individual’s life. There is a general belief that an inability to achieve satisfaction with one’s life indicates an unsuccessful life. Because of this socially generated drive for satisfaction with life, one is made to wonder. What factors are related to the experience of life satisfaction? What variables are good predictors of life satisfaction?            One suspected variable that would act as a good predictor of satisfaction with life is social network size. A social network refers to an individual’s link or relationship with other individuals. This link can cause certain social behavior to be explained (Mitchell, 1969). Quinn, Gavigan, and Franklin (1980) defined social networks to be the social units an individual is placed in contact with. Quinn et al. (1980) studied the effects of social network interaction on life satisfaction in older adults. The findings indicated that social network interaction was not a good predictor of satisfaction with life.            Another study conducted by Bowling, Farquhar, ands Browne (1991) indicated that social network size is a poor indicator of life satisfaction. The study involved the participation of two types of individuals – those who lived in rural neighborhoods and those who lived in urban neighborhoods. Bowling et al. (1991) noted larger reported social network sizes for individuals in the urban areas as opposed to those in the rural areas. Despite this difference in reported social network sizes, life satisfaction between the two groups was not found to be different. This may, however, have been a result of difference in the levels of interaction available to individuals residing in the two areas. The insignificant findings may have been a result of the inherent differences between neighborhoods and therefore not representative of the social network size of a given individual.            Optimism is a second variable deemed to be related to feelings of satisfaction with life. A greater sense of optimism allows one to maintain an outlook on life that allows for the consideration of the world as a generally positive place. Research exploring the life satisfaction felt by retired physicians showed that greater optimism resulted in a greater satisfaction with their life. (Austrom, Perkins, Damush, and Hendrie, 2003) In retired individuals, especially, optimism may be an essential variable for achieving life satisfaction as it may also be a coping mechanism to the sudden change in lifestyle for the said individuals. The retired physicians felt that the greatest challenge going against their satisfaction with life was in the loss of their professional roles, thus, optimism might have served as a form of mediation between the two stages of the transition. Having a positive outlook on the way their lives was going allowed these physicians to better accept the end of their professional careers and to look forward to the beginning of their retired life. The probable importance of optimism as a mediator was also evidenced by the fact that in the same study by Austrom et al. (2003) it was found that optimism didn’t play as significant a role in determining life satisfaction when it came to the physician’s wives. This may have been due to the fact that they did not need to maintain a positive outlook to boost a sudden change in life roles.            Optimism and not pessimism, which involves having a negative outlook on life, is found to be a greater predictor of life satisfaction. This was specifically found by a study conducted by Chang Sanna (2003). Thus in the present study, only the variable of optimism will be taken into consideration and not its counterpart, pessimism.            Another variable that may show a relationship with an individual’s satisfaction with life is the personality trait of conscientiousness. Conscientiousness has been investigated by many researchers in terms of how well it predicts an individual’s life satisfaction. This trait refers to an individual’s tendency to be organized, diligent and reliable in their behavior. (Chapman, Duberstein, and Lyness, 2007) Conscientiousness may have a role to play in satisfaction because conscientious individuals are able to have more mature defenses and are also able to have a quality of life that is considered by most to be above par as they are able to have more responsibility and control over their health, their social interactions, and their general well-being (Chapman et al, 2007). It may well be that the same link can be found between conscientiousness and life satisfaction. If higher levels of conscientiousness indicate higher quality of life, it may also indicate greater degree of satisfaction with life as a result of the same mechanisms.            A study by Lounsbury, Saudarga, Gibson, and Leong (2005) examined just this relationship. Through an inspection of the personality characteristics accounted for in the Big Five, it was found that conscientiousness along with extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience account for 45% of total perceived life satisfaction. Is conscientiousness, then, as a variable independent of the other personality traits in the Big Five, significantly related to satisfaction with life?            The present study aims to investigate the relationships that exist between satisfaction with life and the three variables stated above: social network size, optimism, and conscientiousness. Based on the empirical evidence provided by past literature, it is predicted that satisfaction with life will be significantly correlated to optimism and conscientiousness. A greater level of optimism and conscientiousness in an individual will indicate a greater satisfaction with life. Also, social network size is hypothesized to have no significant difference on satisfaction with life. The last hypothesis is based on the findings of past literature. However, due to the questionable nature of past studies and how these measured social network against life satisfaction, the present study’s hypothesis may turn out to be negated. It is hypothesized, then, that the variables of optimism and conscientiousness will have a significant and direct relationship with satisfaction with life while that of social network size will have no significant difference on satisfaction with life. Methodology Participants            The participants of the study totaled 91 students, 23 (25.3%) of whom were male and 68(74.7%) of whom were female. (See Table 1 in Appendix for tabulated figures) All the participants were enrolled in Research Method in Psychology classes at the California State University, Fullerton. The ethnicity break down of the participants is the following: African American – 1.1%, Asian (Pacific Islander) – 3.3%, Caucasian – 49.5%, Hispanic – 27.5%, Middle Eastern – 2.2%, Southeast Asian – 2.2%, multiethnic – 11%. 3.3% of the participants reported to having other types of ethnicity. (See Table 2 in Appendix for tabulated figures) The range in ages of the participants was from 19 years to 46 years. The mean age was 23 years old. (See Table 3 in Appendix for tabulated figures) None of the participants received incentive for their participation. There were no extra credits or monetary compensations given in exchange for their contribution to the study. Materials or Measures            Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988). The PANAS measures trait negative affect or the affective well being of the participants. It is composed of a 10-item scale designed to measure typical experiences of negative affect. Participants are able to rate the extent to which they experience certain mood states such as distressed, upset, scared, and irritable. They are able to do this through the indicators of a 5-point scale (very slightly or not at all, a little, moderately, quite a bit, extremely). The participants were asked to indicate to what extent they felt each feeling or emotion listed during the past two weeks from the time of the survey.            Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen Griffin, 1985) The SWLS is a global measure for subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Diener et al (1985) defined life satisfaction as a conscious cognitive judgment life. This entails an individual’s comparison of their own life experiences with a self-set standard. The scale is composed of 5 items and utilizes a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree).  The items of the test included statements such as â€Å"The conditions of my life are excellent†and â€Å"If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.†Possible total scores range from 5 to 35. A resulting score ranging from 5 to 19 signifies dissatisfaction while scores between 21-31 signify satisfaction.            Life Orientation Test (LOT-R; Scheier, Carver, Bridges, 1994) The LOT-R measures generalized optimism. The test is made up of 10 items. Participants will indicate the extent to which they agree with the 10 statements in the test through a 5-point Likert-type scale (0-strongly disagree to 4-strongly agree). The statements involved sentiments like â€Å"in uncertain times, I usually expect the best†. A participant can achieve a score from 0 to 24 with a higher score indicating greater levels of optimism.            Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, Kentle, 1994) The BFI was used to assess the personalities of the participants with regards to the five aspects included in the big five namely extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. The BFI consists of 44 items that ask the participants to rank themselves on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1-disagree strongly to 5-agree strongly). The 44 items deal with different types of behavior related to the Big Five. For the present study, the BFI will be used to measure the variable of conscientiousness. BFI items related to conscientiousness included â€Å"perseveres until the task is finished†, â€Å"is a reliable worker†, and â€Å"does things efficiently†. Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-6; Lubben Gironda, 2003) The LSNS-6 is a test of a set of questions establishing ties with relatives and ties with non-relatives. Examples of these questions include â€Å"How many relatives do you see or hear from at least once a month?†and â€Å"How many friends do you see or hear from at least once a month? The participant chooses one of the options available for each question. These answers have corresponding points. Total scores of the participants may range from 0 to 30. A higher score indicates a higher level of social network. For this research, the LSNS-6 was used to measure social network size. A high score in the LSNS-6 was taken to signify a larger social network size while a low score meant a smaller social network size. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1989) The RSES measures global self-esteem. The test is composed of 10 items. Responses are given on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree). A sample question is At times I feel like I am no good at all. Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubominsky, and Lepper , 1999) The SHS measures global subjective happiness. The test consists of four items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-7). A sample question is â€Å"Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?†Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough, Emmons, and Tsang, 2002) The gratitude questionnaire is a self-report test measuring global gratitude. The test consists of six items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-stronlgy disagree to 7-strongly agree). A sample item is â€Å"If I had to list everything that I was grateful for, it would be a very long list.†Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF; Brown, 2002) The TTF is a test measuring global forgiveness tendencies. The test consists of four items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree). A sample item is â€Å"I tend to get over it quickly when someone hurts my feelings.†Procedure Questionnaires were handed out to all participants in their respective classrooms of Research Method in Psychology at the California State University, Fullerton. Participants were given instructions as a group and were told that participation in this study would be anonymous. It was also stated that they may voluntarily choose to participate and could withdraw at anytime. The whole session took about 15-30 minutes. Participants were provided informed consent prior to the administration of the test and were debriefed after they finished. Results The results showed that individuals’ with a smaller social network size (mean=4.10) were significantly less satisfied compared to those with life larger social network size (mean=5.05; t(89)= -3.79, p.001). There was a noted positive correlation between optimism and satisfaction with life (r = 0.543, p = 0.01). A positive correlation was also found between conscientiousness and satisfaction with life (r = 0.222, p = 0.05) Discussion            The main purpose of this research was to establish whether a relationship existed between satisfaction with life and optimism, and satisfaction with life and conscientiousness. Another purpose was to establish whether social network size made a difference to satisfaction with life. The original hypothesis of the study stated that a significant positive relationship would be found between satisfaction with life and optimism as well as between satisfaction with life and conscientiousness. It was also hypothesized that social network size would not have a significant difference on satisfaction with life. The hypotheses of the present study were based on the findings of past researches. (Quinn et al, 1980; Bowling et al, 1991; Austrom et al, 2003; Chang and Sanna, 2003; Chapman et al, 2007; Lounsbury et al, 2005) The results of the current study show that there is a significantly positive relationship between satisfaction with life and two variables it was compared against, namely, optimism and conscientiousness. Results also showed a significant difference with social network size and satisfaction with life. The initial hypotheses for optimism and conscientiousness were supported. The hypothesis regarding social network size, however, was rejected by the statistical results. The findings on optimism and conscientiousness validate past research findings. These showed that greater optimism in life contributed to greater satisfaction with life (Austrom et al., 2003). Optimism was also found to be a good predictor of life satisfaction (Chang and Sanna, 2003). Past findings established conscientiousness to be a contributing factor to life satisfaction (Lounsbury et al, 2005) as well as a variable directly related to higher quality of life ratings (Chapman et al., 2007). The findings on social network size, on the other hand, disagree with past research findings where social network interaction was not found to be related to life satisfaction (Quinn et al., 1980) and where the size of the individual’s social network was determined to be a bad predictor of life satisfaction (Bowling et al., 1991). Optimism may be able to affect life satisfaction positively due to the fact that a positive outlook on life can also cause a better assessment of past experiences not just of present circumstances. If one is able to achieve a better disposition towards life, the tendency to overlook the negativity that will detract from satisfaction felt towards life will be greater. This shows that the statistical significance of optimism (r=0.543, p=0.01) with satisfaction with life is warranted. Conscientiousness, on the other hand, was also positively correlated to (r=0.035, p=0.05) with satisfaction with life. This may be due to the fact that conscientiousness indicates a better ability to handle life experiences. Conscientiousness, as defined in the Big Five Inventory (Donahue et al., 2001), entails caution, dependability, organization and responsibility. These characteristics when applied to the everyday behavior and experiences of an individual are most likely to indicate an individual who achieves success. People who are more cautious, more dependable, more organized, and more responsible are the ones who are achievers in human society. It may be that the success and achievement linked with conscientious people is also the link that sustains their satisfaction with life. This is not to say that individuals deemed to have low conscientiousness are not likely to feel satisfaction with life. The findings only suggest that a high level of conscientiousness predicts life satisfaction to great extent. The discussion of how social network size is related to satisfaction with life should be done with care. The fact that previous research found no significant difference between social network and life satisfaction may have been due to the inadequacy of measurement with the past research. Quinn et al. (1980), for example, concentrated on the interaction that occurred in social network and not size. This meant that Quinn et al. (1980) focused on the quality of the individual’s social network and not on the quantity. Bowling et al. (1991), on the other hand, compared two different localities and this is what might have caused the inconsistencies in their findings concerning social network size and life satisfaction. Inherent characteristics of urban and rural locations could have played into action and caused the insignificant findings. For the present study, however, the significant difference between social network size and life satisfaction makes sense especially because social network size is also an indicator of an individual’s degree of social interaction as well as sources of social support; both of which are essential in an individual’s development. The findings of this study are limited because of the small sample size used. A bigger sample that is more representative of the general population should be used in future research. In addition, only a few variables concerning satisfaction with life were investigated. Future research should incorporate more variables that may affect life satisfaction into the study. The variables of social support, social interaction, and pessimism are a few of the factors that should be investigated. The significant relationship between social network size and life satisfaction should also be validated by future studies as the results in this study are not in agreement with previous works. The implications of the study are far-reaching. Establishing the relationships existing between life satisfaction, optimism, and conscientiousness allows different clinicians and practitioners in the healthcare system a chance to improve their handling of clients with low satisfaction with life. This may most likely involve older adults. Because satisfaction with life in itself is a concept that health-care workers find hard to deal with, finding other personality traits and variables that are related to it enables these workers an alternative in aiding these types of patients. Increasing optimism and improving conscientiousness in an individual can help to increase their satisfaction with life. In addition, increasing the size of the client’s social network will improve their satisfaction with life. The present study’s findings can also be expanded to teachers in the field of education. Satisfaction of their students can be increased by allowing them to feel more optimistic about their activities also by guiding them to be more conscientious in their behavior. Also, increasing opportunities for students to enlarge their social networks can also help these students improve their feelings of satisfaction with life. References Austrom, M.G., Perkins, A. J., Damush, T. M., Hendrie, H. C. (2003). Predictors of life satisfaction in retired physicians and spouses. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 134-141 Bowling, A., Farquhar, M., Browne, P. (1991). Life satisfaction and associations with social network and support variables in three samples of elderly people. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 549-566 Brown, R. (2003). Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: construct validity and links with depression. Society forPersonality and Social Psychology, 29, 759-771 Chang, E.C., Sanna, L. J. (2003). Optimism, accumulated life stress, and psychological and physical adjustment: is it always adaptive to expect the best? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 97-115. Chapman, B., Duberstein, P., Lyness, J. M. (2007). Personality traits, education, and health-related quality of life among older adult primary care patients. Journals of Gerontology: series B psychological sciences and social sciences, 62B, 343-352 Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. J., Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., Kentle, R. (1991). The â€Å"Big Five†Inventory – Versions 4a and 54.  Technical Report, Institute of Personality Assessment and Research, Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. Lounsbury, J. W., Saudarga, R. A., Gibson, L. W., Leong, F. T. (2005). An investigation of broad and narrow personality traits in relation to general and domain specific live satisfaction of college students. Research in Higher Education,46, 707-729 Lubben, J. E., Gironda, M. W. (2003a). Centrality of social ties to the health and well-being of older adults. In B. Berkman L. K. Harooytan (Eds.), Social work and health care in an aging world (pp. 319-350). New York: Springer Lyubomirsky, S., Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155. Mancini, J. A., Quinn, W., Gavigan, M. A., Franklin, H. (1980). Social network interaction among older adults: implications for life satisfaction. Human Relations, 33, 543-554 McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., Tsang, J. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 112-127. Mitchell, J. C. (1969) The concept and use of social networks. In Social Networks in Urban Situations: Analysis of Personal Relationships in Central African Towns Ed. J.C. Mitchell. Manchester: Manchester University Press Rosenberg, Morris. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image. Revised edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,1063-1070.
Tuesday, January 21, 2020
Society MUST Understand how the Natural World Works Essay -- Argumenta
Society MUST Understand how the Natural World Works Except for children, few of us spend much time wondering why Nature is the way it is; where the Cosmos came from, or whether it was always here; or whether there are ultimate limits to what humans know. There are even children who want to know what a black hole looks like; why the sky is blue; how does a balloon stay up in the air; what makes the human body work; and why there is a Universe. I have many opportunities to teach children at various ages and have observed that many of these children are natural born scientists. They have inquisitive little minds filled with curiosity and wonder. Provocative and insightful questions bubble out them with enormous enthusiasm. I am often asked follow-up questions that have the potential to take up the whole day. These children have never heard of the notion of a dumb question. I find something all together different when talking to middle and high school students. A great deal of them seem to get by by memorizing facts and the joy of discovery that led to those facts has gone out of them. They have lost most of the wonder, and gained little skepticism. This particular age group's main concern is not taking up class time asking dumb questions. They are willing to accept inadequate answers and they don't ask follow-up questions. Many of them are more concerned with the placement of the hands on the clock and when the school bell is going to ring. The middle and high school classrooms are often saturated with indirect glances to judge the approval of their peers. As a graduate student, it is frightening to see the same behavior acted out in upper-level college courses. The negative glances from those who lack respect for learning defi... ..., drive to learn things and then to exchange the information with others (239). I understand the natural world to be an absolutely essential tool for any society with a hope of surviving the next century. It is of tremendous importance that we take responsibility as parents and teachers and start generating critical, curious, and imaginative students. The worlds needs and deserves a society with a basic understanding of how the natural world works. Works Cited Bishop, J. Thomas. "Enemies of Promise." In the Presence of Others: Voices That Call for Response. Second Edition. Andrea A. Lundsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. St. Martin's Press. New York, 1997. 26-261. Thomas, Lewis. "The Hazards of Science." In the Presence of Others: Voices That Call for Response. Second Edition. Andrea A. Lundsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. St. Martin's Press. New York, 1997. 239.
Sunday, January 12, 2020
Alcoholism people
Chronic and often progressive illness involving the excessive inappropriate ingestion of ethyl alcohol, whether in the form of familiar alcoholic beverages or as a constituent of other substances. Alcoholism is thought to arise from a combination of a wide range of physiological, psychological, social, and genetic factors. It is characterized by an emotional and often physical dependence on alcohol, and it frequently leads to brain damage or early death. (Nicholas, 2001) Some 10 percent of the adult drinkers in the U. K. are considered alcoholics or at least they experience drinking problems to some degree.More males than females are affected, but drinking among the young and among women is increasing. Consumption of alcohol is apparently on the rise in the U. K. , countries of the former Soviet Union, and many European nations. This is paralleled by growing evidence of increasing numbers of alcohol-related problems in other nations, including the Third World. (Richard, 2006) Effects Alcohol has direct toxic as well as sedative effects on the body, and failure to take care of nutritional and other physical needs during prolonged periods of excessive drinking may further complicate matters. Advanced cases often require hospitalization.The effects on major organ systems are cumulative and include a wide range of digestive-system disorders such as ulcers, inflammation of the pancreas, and cirrhosis of the liver. The central and peripheral nervous systems can be permanently damaged. Blackouts, hallucinations, and extreme tremor may occur. The latter symptoms are involved in the most serious alcohol withdrawal syndrome, Delirium Tremens, which can prove fatal if not treated or treated improperly. (Donald, 2000) This is in contrast to withdrawal from narcotic drugs such as heroin, which, although distressful, rarely results in death.Recent evidence has shown that heavy–and even moderate–drinking during pregnancy can cause serious damage to the unborn ch ild: physical or mental retardation or both; a severe expression of this damage is known as fetal alcohol syndrome. (Richard, 2006) Genetic and Behaviour factors Alcoholism is considered a disease which runs in families and results from genetics. According to Edenburg, â€Å"Alcoholism is a disease of the mind and body similar to other diseases like cancer†. Alcoholism is like cancer because both are based on the genes of the person, Edenburg feels.Edenberg is Chancellor's professor at the Indiana University School of Medicines and was the lead researcher for the study. Edenburg believes that even though there is not one single â€Å"gene that causes alcoholism†, the statistical link between genes and the risk for alcoholism is powerful. He has researched the GABRA2 gene, which is one of many genes that produce parts of the receptor for the brain's primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA (Edenburg, 2004). Edenburg believes that the link between alcoholism and this ge ne is the strongest.His evidence came from the study he conducted that involved 2282 individuals from 262 families, all picked because each had 3 or more alcoholic family members. The Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) has been working on the study for years. COGA is a federally funded effort whose objective is to identify and characterize those genetic factors. Over 1,000 alcoholic subjects and their families are in the study, with researchers conducting comprehensive psychological, physiological, electrophysiological, and genetic analyses. Several traits, or phenotypes, have been identified by the study that seem to be linked to genetics.Although environmental aspects are very important, these studies give solid evidence that genes play a major role. Adoption studies have also supported the role of inheritable factors concerning alcoholism (Fitzgerald, 1988). Researchers studied males and females that were adopted, comparing them with non-adopted siblings. Bo th males and females of alcoholic and non-alcoholic parents were also studied. A child with alcoholic parents is four times as likely to become alcoholic than one with non-alcoholic parents, even if the child was adopted and raised in non-alcoholic families.(Ann & Gary, 2004) If adopted children with alcoholic parents whom lived with non-alcoholic foster parents are still four times more likely to become alcoholics, it proves that genes are more to blame. Furthermore being raised by a biological alcoholic parent did not increase the likelihood of developing alcoholism (Fitzgerald, 1988). Robert Karp, PhD, is the program director for genetics at the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. He says that the end stage of alcoholism looks fairly similar, but there are many different ways to get there, so there are probably many different genetic causes (Elliot, 2001).Although some data points to a genetic basis for alcoholism, other studies go in the other direction. A study published in Science News that tested 356 pairs of twins showed minimal correlation with alcoholism and genetic factors. The report supports the opinion of many scientists that think environmental factors play a larger role in alcoholism than genes (Bower, 1992). The study was among women of all ages and among men with drinking problems that surfaced in childhood.The researchers tested 85 pairs of male identical twins and 44 pairs of female identical twins (sharing the same genes), and 96 pairs of male fraternal twins and 43 pairs of female fraternal twins (sharing half of their genes), along with 88 pairs of opposite-sex fraternal twins. (Donald, 2000) To choose the sets of twins, the researchers would find on twin who had undergone treatment for alcohol dependence or abuse, then sought out the other twin. The study suggests that family influences have a greater effect on these people than their genes do, reports psychologist Matt McGue of the University of Minnesota and his collea gues.McGue feels that environmental factors are more to blame for the development of alcoholism with this study as evidence. McGue's team also reports that genes play a larger role in alcoholism for the men whose problem emerged during childhood. According to McGue, â€Å"Although the data emphasize environmental influences on alcoholism, they also indicate that consistent delinquent and cruel behavior derives from important genetic effects. â€Å"((Nicholas, 2001) Some experts consider alcoholism to not only derive from genetic causes, but also environmental causes.According to Donald, family studies have repeatedly confirmed that the risk of alcoholism is higher among parents, siblings, and children with relatives that are alcoholics. While genetics may play an important role, there are other factors that can influence individual biological susceptibility to the effects of alcoholism (Donald, 2000). The fact that alcohol abuse is linked to behavioral and environmental factors le ads to the point that genetics act together along with other non-genetic factors (Mawr, 2002). Alcohol abuse is very likely to involve multiple genes that control various aspects of the biological response to alcohol.Environmental factors amplify the chance of alcoholism when mixed with these genes(Heath and Nelson, 2002). Some experts agree that both genetics and environmental factors play equal roles in alcoholism. According to Howard J. Edenberg, alcoholism is a â€Å"complex disease†, which means that many genes as well as environmental factors play a role. It is known that addiction runs in families, but how is it transmitted? Are we born with an ‘addiction gene' or with an ‘addictive personality', or are we taught addictive behavior by our family and society? This classic question of nature vs. nurture is answered with a qualified â€Å"both.†(Heath and Nelson, 2002) Psychoanalytic theories make some intuitive sense since many alcoholics have immatur e social skills. They often turn to alcohol to help cope with life stresses. Despite this intuitive appeal, there are little prospective data to support these theories. An alcohol dependent person may exhibit dependent traits, however, these traits are just as likely to result from chronic alcohol use as they are to lead to it. (Ann & Gary, 2004) Even if correlations exist between alcohol abuse and dependent personalities, it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect.Treatment Treatment of the illness increasingly recognizes alcoholism itself as the primary problem needing attention, rather than regarding it as always secondary to another, underlying problem. Treatment is administered in specialized residential treatment facilities, separate units within general or psychiatric hospitals, outpatient clinics, and physicians' offices. (Richard, 2006) As the public becomes more aware of the nature of alcoholism, the social stigma attached to it decreases, alcoholics and th eir families tend to conceal it less, and diagnosis is not delayed as long.Earlier and better treatment has led to encouragingly high recovery rates. (Donald, 2000) In addition to managing physical complications and withdrawal states, treatment involves individual counseling and group therapy techniques aimed at complete and comfortable abstinence from alcohol and other mood-changing drugs of addiction. Such abstinence, according to the best current evidence, is the desired goal, despite some highly controversial suggestions that a safe return to social drinking is possible.Addiction to other drugs, particularly tranquilizers and sedatives, poses a major hazard to alcoholics. Antabuse, a drug that produces a violent intolerance for alcohol as long as the substance remains in the body, is sometimes used after withdrawal. (Doug, 2005) Alcoholics Anonymous, a support group commonly used for those undergoing other treatment, in many cases helps alcoholics to recover without recourse to formal treatment or facilitates sustained remission in those who completed formal treatment.Two pharmacotherapies, naltrexone and acamprosote, have recently been shown to reduce the chances for relapse to alcohol dependence when used in combination with psychosocial treatment. Conclusion After reading through many articles about how Alcoholism is a disease, I found that the evidence proving it false was a lot greater than evidence proving it was in fact a disease. The research and facts provided revolved around a physical change in ones system, or â€Å"tolerance†.With any substance that is introduced to the body, it becomes familiar with it and can withstand more of a dose that normal. This does not mean that one is becoming â€Å"dependant†on it or will have trouble not using the substance. It simply means that his body is adjusted to the levels that he his inducing. The process is similar to that of exercising. If one has never jogged before, he will find it hard t o go the distances that a regular runner can, without losing breath or pausing.With repetition and constant practice though, he will find that he is able to travel longer distances without tiring out. Independent studies abroad have shown that one of the major reasons disproving â€Å"Alcoholism as a Disease†is that when treated with a program such as AA, the drinker, or â€Å"patient†, is confronted with stopping drinking cold and taking control of their lives. If Alcoholism was in fact an uncontrollable disease, that takes control of various organs and functions of the body as it deteriorates them, one would not be able to do this process successfully.References Ann W. Lawson, Gary Lawson, (2004), â€Å"Alcoholism and the Family: A Guide to Treatment and Prevention†(2nd edition) Motivation Pr. Bower, Bruce. (1992) Science News. Alcoholism: Nurture May Often Outdo Nature Washington: Vol. 141, Iss. 5; p. 69 http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb Donald W. Goodwin (2 000) â€Å"Alcoholism: The Facts†; 3 edition Oxford University Press, USA Doug Thorburn, (2005) â€Å"Alcoholism Myths and Realities: Removing the Stigma of Society's most Destructive Disease†Galt Publishing Edenberg, Howard J (2004) Medical Letter on the CDC FDA.Alcoholism; Alcoholism risk linked to gene involved in brain chemistry Atlanta: p. 10 http://gateway. proquest. com/openurl Elliot, Victoria Stagg (Ed. ). (2001). Addictive Cocktail: Alcoholism and genetics. AMedNews. http://www. ama-assn. org/amednews/2001/02/05/hlsa0205. htm Fitzgerald, Kathleen Whalen. (1988), Alcoholism: The Genetic Inheritance, New York: Doubleday Heath, Andrew C and Elliot C Nelson. (2002) â€Å"Alcohol Research and Health. Effects of the interaction between genotype and environment: Research into the genetic epidemiology of alcohol dependence†, Washington: Vol.26, Iss. 3; p. 193 http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb Mawr, Bryn. (2002) Senior Seminar in Neural and Behavioral Sciences . Nature, Nurture, and Evolution. Haverford College. Nicholas A. Pace. (2001) â€Å"Alcoholism Is a Disease†Alcohol. William Dudley, Ed. Teen Decisions Series. Greenhaven Press Richard Fields, (2006). â€Å"Drugs in Perspective†McGraw-Hill College Volpicelli, Joseph R. , â€Å"Alcohol Dependence: Diagnosis, Clinical Aspects, And Biopsychosocial Causes†http://www. doctordeluca. com/Documents/AlcDependenceOverviewVolpicelli. htm
Saturday, January 4, 2020
Modern European History Essay - 886 Words
Modern European History 1. What did Paul Valery mean in saying that the mind of Europe doubted itself profoundly? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Before 1914, people in Europe believed in progress, peace, prosperity, reason, and rights of individuals. During that time, people began to believe in the Enlightenment, industrial developments were just starting and scientific advances began to take place. People then really believed in progression and further developments. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Unfortunately, World War I broke out. Nevertheless, the optimistic people of Europe still did not doubt the outcome and were so convinced that it was not going to have any long term effects. They looked toward happier times and hoped life will†¦show more content†¦People were so terrified by it that they were still in shock and unsure of its outcome and consequence and the possibility that it might cause another war to break out. Valery saw that many people suffered from anxiety. He argued that the people looked at the future with great unease and discomfort for what the war had done and what the war will cause. He also suggested that quot;Europe doubted itself profoundlyquot; because of all the lost of all optimistic ideas and accomplishments. People did not have to strength or will to believe in themselves anymore. They were too devastated by the war. They also saw no hope and thus doubted themselves for making any more progress. 2. Why do you thin k many veterans felt that they were part of a lost generation? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Veterans during the war were just realizing what the war is all about. They saw what the war had done to peoples lives and body parts. They sometimes couldnt even believe that such shattered bodies were once human beings lived happily among them. Most of them grew up in the war knowing nothing of life but despair, fear, death, and sorrow. These veterans felt that they were part of a last generation upon whom which the war was caused by. Now these young man must carry on the blood shed and fight for theirShow MoreRelatedThe Early Modern Period Of European History1347 Words  | 6 PagesThe Early Modern period in European history was a time of great upheaval, one that lead to shifting and changing views and policies in many fields; among these many historically important changes was the very beginning of the women’s rights movement. Although full-scale change in equality for women was (and some might say still is) quite distant from this time period, the embryo that will eventually grow into feminism and gender equality can be seen during this time period through the primary sourceRead MoreModern European History And Politics1222 Words  | 5 PagesModern European History and Politics: Short Essay On the 26th of June 1963, the 35th President of the United States John F. 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